Extracellular NAD(+): a danger signal hindering regulatory T cells.

Endogenous danger signals released during cell damage contribute to alert the immune system. Typically, their release results in the activation and maturation of innate immune cells, and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, extracellular NAD(+) stimulates immune responses by hindering regulatory T cells (Tregs), and could, therefore, represent the prototype of a new category of danger signals.